Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Emile, or, On Education. Allan Bloom translation. New York: Basic Books, 1979.
1. Distracting, then guiding, the eroticism of youth
Nature “forms the natural man” more readily than it forms “the moral man” (IV.314). In youth, the body is strong “while the soul is still languorous and weak” (IV.314). The fundamental fact for the governor to keep in mind is that “temperament always precedes reason”; this being so, Emile’s education thus far has consisted in improving his temperament by restraining his passions, “the empire of the senses,” and arousing his reason as it slowly develops, “in order that man may as much as possible always be one” (IV.314). Both sentiments and reason are natural; the educator’s challenge is to unite them in a way that serves the good of the pupil. Now that he has been introduced to the god of the natural religion, “what new holds we have given ourselves over our pupil,” “new means of speaking to his heart” which enable him to find “his true interest in being good,” in “doing good” without social or legal pressures, in “being just between God and himself” and doing his duty, “carrying virtue in his heart” with no bifurcation between the ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ man. In a word, Emile has been ‘saved’—saved from being a ‘bourgeois,’ an outwardly respectable but inwardly conniving engine of amour-propre. (IV.314). He is morally unified, always “one” not dual or self-contradictory. As such, he can enjoy “that durable happiness which the repose of a good conscience and the contemplation of this supreme Being promise him in the other life after he has spent this one well” (IV.314). He does not “adorn vice with the mask of virtue” (IV.315).
Moreover, unlike other youths, Emile does not associate reason with dominance. He is neither rebellious nor self-indulgent but instead “ready to subject himself to the yoke of nascent reason” by consent, finding in reason a useful instrument of self-government (IV.315). Now that he is too old to tolerate “anything children are told,” “I speak to him as to a man and tell him only new things,” things that would have bored him as a child but now are more “to his taste” (IV.316). The capacity to reason well and the onset of sexual passion occur at about the same time—the “true moment of nature” (IV.316), of human maturity. “Since man must die, he must reproduce in order that the species may endure and the order of the world be preserved” (IV.316). “Still your disciple,” “he is no longer your pupil” but “your friend” (IV.316). Locke advises the father of the Young Gentleman to introduce him to such matters as care for the family estate at a young age, saying that the sooner you treat him as a man the sooner he will become one. Locke says little or nothing about sexual passion. Rousseau sharply departs from this, emphasizing the difficulty of the transition from a childhood spent in a household and adulthood spent in civil society, often in the company of women.
“One must use a great deal of art to prevent social man from being totally artificial” (IV.317). The encounter with women, above all other encounters, can lead a youth to such artificiality—preening himself in order to please the pretty girls. For the sake of Emile’s health and morals, his virginity should, and can, be prolonged until the age of twenty or later. “Up to now I stopped him by his ignorance”; now that he is a man “he has to be stopped by his enlightenment” (IV.318). How?
“This is my moment to present my accounts to him” (IV.318). The governor will explain to Emile how Emile was educated, “what he is and what I am, what I have done, what he has done, what we owe each other, all his moral relations” (IV.318). He also needs an account of his future struggles, how to overcome them, what his governor can do to help and what he must do to help himself. He must finally learn how to govern his sexual nature, to recognize “the new perils which surround him, and all the solid reasons which ought to oblige him to keep an attentive watch over himself before listening to his nascent desires” (IV.318). “Instruct him in these dangerous mysteries which you have so long hidden from him with so much care,” lest he learn them “from another” or “from himself” (IV.318). In the Confessions Rousseau emphasizes the dangers of masturbation, the empire of sexual passion that it inaugurates. “As long as he continues freely to open his soul to me and to tell me with pleasure what he feels, I have nothing to fear,” but as soon has he becomes timid, reserved, shameful, “there is no longer a moment to lose, and if I do not hurry to instruct him, he will soon be instructed in spite of me” (IV.319).
Reasoned instruction must be carefully prepared. “Never talk reason to young people, even when they are at the age of reason, without first putting them in a condition to understand it” (IV.319). Otherwise you are wasting your breath. To keep Emile out of the boudoir, get him out of the house. Introduce him to a new physical activity: hunting. “He will lose in it—at least for a time—the “dangerous inclinations born of softness,” as “the hunt hardens the heart as well as the body,” accustoming the young hunter “to blood, to cruelty,” to the chase of Diana instead of the chase after Aphrodite (IV.320). The passion for the hunt “serves to suspend a more dangerous passion” (IV.321). Perhaps not incidentally, hunting is a well-respected aristocratic pastime; in pursuing it, he will scarcely endure any ridicule from his peers. Rousseau carefully selects elements of his contemporary civil society that can be usefully integrated into Emile’s education, even as educates him to resist so many civil-social conventions that are useless or injurious. As a result, the governor and Emile will not exhaust themselves in fighting an all-fronts struggle. Fighting the good fight requires fighting intelligently.
2. Reasoning with youth
Distraction will only go so far. How will the governor talk reasonably but also effectively to him? “One of the errors of our age is to use reason in too unadorned a form, as if men were all mind”—the error of the Enlightenment (IV.321). “The impression of the word is always weak, and one speaks to the heart far better through the eyes than through the ears,” as the Bible sometimes fails to understand (IV.321). Reason can restrain but it seldom arouses the soul toward great actions. “Always to reason is the mania of small minds. Strong souls have quite another language,” (IV.321).
As a result of the combination of reasoning and weak-souled amour-propre, “in the modern age men no longer have a hold on one another except by force or by self-interest; the ancients, by contrast, acted much more by persuasion and by the affections of the soul because they did not neglect the language of signs,” the language of the visual rather than the language of the aural (IV.321). One still sees this language in the ceremonies of the Catholic Church and of the Doge of Venice. In antiquity the Romans reinforced words with signs—the fasces, the statues of gods and men, temples and capital buildings. “Never reason in a dry manner with youth”; Rousseau doesn’t acknowledge it, but he takes a page from the Gospels in advising governors to “clothe reason in a body if you want to make youth able to grasp it” and “make the language of the mind pass through the heart, so that it may make itself understood” (IV.323).
The account the governor gives of himself and of the education he has given Emile must be stated in a way which “reveal[s] that I have done it for myself”—so as not to strain the young man’s credulity—but also “my tender affection” for him as “the reason for all my care” (IV.323). “Instead of narrowing his soul by always speaking of his interest, I shall now speak of mine alone, and I shall thereby touch him more” with “the sentiments of friendship, generosity, and gratitude which I have already aroused and which are so sweet to cultivate” (IV.323). Above all, he will inspire Emile’s compassion. “You are my property, my child, my work. It is from your happiness that I expect my own. If you frustrate my hopes, you are robbing me of twenty years of my life, and you are causing the unhappiness of my old age.” (IV.323). Compassion, the natural equivalent of Christian agapic love, will bring governor and pupil closer together, ‘abiding’ in one another’s souls as God does in the souls of Christians, Christian souls ‘in’ God. The well-unified young man will unite in sympathy with his governor, consenting to his continued guidance.
Having “prepare[d] the moment for making oneself understood,” the governor now “expounds the laws of nature in all their truth,” showing “him the sanction of these same laws in the physical and moral ills that their infraction brings down upon” those guilty of sexual misconduct (IV.324). “If he is speaking of this inconceivable mystery of generation, one joins to the idea of the allure given to this act by the Author of nature the idea of the exclusive attachment which makes it delicious, and the idea of the duties of fidelity and of modesty which surround it and redouble its charm in fulfilling it its object” in that “sweetest of associations,” marriage (IV.324). Contrast this with “the horrors of debauchery,” its “foolish degradation” and the “final destruction” it can lead to, death by venereal disease (IV.324). “If, I say, one shows him clearly how the taste for chastity is connected with health, strength, courage, the virtues, love itself, and all the true goods of man, I maintain that one will then render this chastity desirable and dear to him and that his mind will be amenable to the means he will be given for preserving it” (IV.324).
At every step, “clothe reason in forms which will make it loved” (IV.325). Do indeed “speak to him of love, of women, of pleasures”; in this you become his “confidant,” and “only by this title” will “you truly be his master” (IV.325). Again in imitation of God, enter into a contract, a covenant, with him, but a rational covenant in which he pledges to follow your commands and you pledge to show him the reasons for them. In these ways you will find in his “nascent desires” not “an obstacle to the lessons of reason” but “the true means of making him amenable to those very lessons (IV.327). “One has a hold on the passions only by means of the passions. It is by their empire that their tyranny must be combated; and it always from nature itself that the proper instruments to regulate nature must be drawn.” (IV.327). Specifically, “in making him sense how much charm the union of hearts adds to the attraction of the senses, I shall disgust him with libertinism, and I shall make him moderate by making him fall in love” (IV.327).
3. Introducing Emile to civil society
“Emile is not made to remain always solitary” (IV.327). He has social duties he needs to perform. Although he has knowledge of “man in general” he has yet to “know individuals,” to learn how to live among them (IV.327). Here, women are. “His passions will doubtless be able to lead him astray,” but “at least he will not be deceived by the passions of others,” carried away “by the example of others or seduced by their prejudices” (IV.327).
As for social practices, Emile’s inexperience actually will serve as an advantage. Most children learn manners before they know the purpose of the practices they are taught. Having reached the age of reason, Emile will readily learn them, with the advantage of knowing “the reasons for them”; he will then “follow them with more discernment” and thus with “more exactness and grace” (IV.327). Whereas “your child’s knowledge will be only in his memory,” Emile’s knowledge “will be in his judgment”; “in a year he will be more amiable and judiciously polite than a young man who has been reared in society from childhood” (IV.327).
The best way to bring him into civil society and to guide his erotic passion at the same time is to propose a new kind of hunt: the hunt for a wife. He is more than ready to go along with that. “Imagine whether I shall know how to get his ear when I depict the beloved whom I destine for him” (IV.328). This provides Rousseau an opportunity to analyze the question of illusion and reality in love. Far from being a ‘Romantic,’ Rousseau maintains that “if we saw what we love exactly as it is, there would be no more love on earth” (IV.329). After the initial illusion, we eventually become disillusioned; “the magic veil drops, and love disappears” (IV.329). By providing Emile with an imaginary woman he makes him disillusioned with real ones ‘up front,’ preventing him “from having illusions about real objects” (IV.329)—the real women of Paris being unsuitable for him, anyway.
As for the image, she will not be perfect, lest Emile never accept any woman at all. “I shall choose such defects in his beloved as shall suit him, as to please him, and to serve to correct his own” (IV.329). We will name her “Sophie,” he tells him, with a play on ‘philo-sophy’ or the love of wisdom. But this young philosopher will never be a Socrates, or a Rousseau. The ‘philosophy’ he will pursue is a more practical form of the love of nature. “The name Sophie augurs well,” he tells Emile; “if the girl whom you choose does not bear it, she will at least be worthy of bearing it” (IV.329). Emile will anticipate that you may already have found her, and he will be right. Sophie’s modesty and simplicity will stand in contrast with the Parisian sophisticates he meets, inoculating his soul against them. Having fixed his heart this way, the governor will need to “defend him only against his senses; his heart is safe” (IV.329).
The “wildness of youth” is caused by Rousseau’s old enemy, opinion (IV.330). Young men egg each other on in their amorous misadventures, ridiculing the chaste man, affronting whatever he has of amour-propre, and especially of vanity. This is why a good-hearted country boy soon gets corrupted in his morals by the city men he falls in with (as for example at university). “His heart is still the same, but his opinions have changed” (IV.330). But “I have worked for twenty years to arm Emile against mockers” (IV.332). “I ask whether there is a young man on the entire earth who is better armed than Emile against everything that can attack his morals, his sentiments, or his principles?” (IV.331). He already views adultery and debauchery with a horror that will keep him out of the clutches of married women and prostitutes, respectively. Marriageable girls will tend to have their own reserves of “fear and shame” (IV.331). ‘Peer pressure’ will have little sway with him, as “nothing makes one more insensitive to mockery than being above opinion,” in expecting, demanding reasons for changing his conduct, not jibes (IV.331). “It then becomes a question of showing him that they deceive him and that, in feigning to treat him as a man, they really treat him as a child,” in contrast to his governor, who always “treat[s] him like a man” (IV.331). That is, Emile’s amour de soi will resist their appeals to amour-propre, the power of which the other young men will overestimate, having themselves been miseducated by the laws of opinion, which they have learned to manipulate in accordance with the amour-propre which animates their own souls. Emile will easily be persuaded that, unlike the governor, his peers “do not love you” and “take no interest in you” except to act upon their “secret spite at seeing that you are better than they are,” which is the sole cause of their attempts “to bring you down to their low level” (IV.331). Given his prior education, Emile “recognizes the voice of friendship, and he knows how to obey reason” (IV.332).
Given the good order of Emile’s soul, “I would rather see him in the midst of the worst society of Paris than alone in his room or in a park, given over to all the restlessness of his age” (IV.333). The hunt for ‘Sophie’ in civil society, like the hunt for wild game, actually serves as another distraction from the worst forms of eroticism. Emile will be so busy defending his virtue against the wiles of loose women and vulgar young men that he will be far less likely to succumb to masturbatory fantasies. As Rousseau puts it, more delicately, “the most dangerous of all the enemies that can attack a young man, and the only one that cannot be put out of the way, is himself,” since “the senses are awakened by the imagination alone” (IV.333). He goes so far as to claim that “their need is not properly a physical need” at all but a product of “mute fermentation [that] certain situations and certain spectacles arouse in the blood of the young without their being able to discern for themselves the cause of this first disturbance” (IV.333). “I am persuaded,” Rousseau avers, “that a solitary man raised in a desert”—a Robinson Crusoe without prior experience of civil society—a man “without books, without instruction, and without women, would die there a virgin at whatever age he had reached” (IV.333).
Be that as it may, what about the young man who has been raised in conventional civil society, the many non-Emiles?
4. How to be a Savoyard Vicar of sex
The body completes its growth at the age of twenty. Until then, sexual continence is primarily a matter of health, of living “in accordance with the order of nature,” which punishes dissipation of bodily energies in sexual misconduct, energies that are better directed toward the body’s natural growth (IV.334). After the age of twenty “continence is a duty of morality” not of physical nature, and it becomes “important to learn to rule oneself, to remain the master of one’s appetites” for the sake of the good order not only of nature but of civil society and one’s life in it (IV.334).
“Remember that I am no longer speaking of my pupil here, but of yours. Do his passions, which you have allowed to ferment, subjugate you? Then yield to them openly, without disguising his victory from him.” (IV.334). You cannot control his debaucheries, but you can make sure you know about them. “It is a hundred times better that the governor approve an offense and deceive himself than that he be deceived by his pupil and that the offense take place without his knowing anything about it,” for if you tell yourself that you can pretend your pupil is a fine young man, his “first abuse that is tolerated will lead to another, and this chain ends only with the overturning of all order and contempt for all law” (334).
What to do? First, “show your weaknesses to your pupil if you want to cure his own” by letting him “see that you undergo the same struggles which he experiences,” letting him “learn to conquer himself by your example” (IV.334). Second, show him the malign effects of habitual debauchery, appealing to his amour-propre in so doing. Such roués, “vile and cowardly even in their vices…have only small souls because their worn-out bodies were corrupted early. There hardly remains enough life in them to move.” (IV.335). Unable “to feel anything great and noble,” they “are only vain, rascally, and false,” lacking even “enough courage to be illustrious criminals” (IV.335). They are contemptible, “the scum of our youth” (IV.335). Finally, appeal to the young man’s libido dominandi as a brake on his eroticism. Tell him, “If there were a single man among them who knew how to be temperate and sober and who knew how in their midst to preserve his heart, his blood, and his morals from the contagion of their example, at the age of thirty he would crush all these insects and become their master with less effort than he had exerted in remaining his own master!” (IV.335). As Socrates recommends in the Republic, deploy thumos against the epithumia. It is a dangerous expedient, as there is no guarantee that thumos will in turn obey logos (as Socrates would have it do) but at least the young man will pursue a nobler passion.
5. Emile’s moeurs, Emile’s taste
In his social debut, Emile won’t “shine”: “The qualities which strike people at first glance are not his,” as “he neither has them nor wants to have them” and “does not care to be esteemed before being known” (IV.335). He has humanity, not politesse; he harbors neither esteem nor contempt for men; neither disputatious nor flattering, he speaks frankly and “says only useful things”; “he is never more at ease than when no attention is paid to him”; he remains “serene and cool,” “never troubled by shame” (IV.336). As a man of amour de soi in a civil society full of amour-propre, he is to that extent remarkable but not noticeably so, and so should offend no one.
He will keep his mind focused on the purpose of his venture, but never coldly. “When one loves, one wants to be loved. Emile loves men; therefore he wants to please them”—and women, too. (IV.337). Among women he “will sometimes be timid and embarrassed” but will rather display a “tender eagerness” (IV.337). “Since true politeness consists in showing benevolence to men” (338), and since Emile’s natural compassion has been cultivated by the governor, “he will not be celebrated as a likeable man,” but those he meets “will like him without knowing why” (IV.339). He says only useful things because such things are what he thinks of; “his intelligence will be sharp and limited,” with “solid sense and healthy judgment”—a man who “never runs after new ideas” or “pride[s] himself on his cleverness” (IV.339). He ideas aim at what is “salutary and truly useful to men,” and since these “in all times” “constitute the only true bonds of society,” he will rather more social than civil (IV.339).
Previously, Emile has studied men’s passions in history. As he now studies their morals in society, “he will often have occasion to reflect on what delights or offends the human heart,” “the principles of taste” (IV.340). Taste is “the faculty of judging what pleases or displeases the greatest number,” and not many men have a sure sense of that, bound up as they are with their own passions (IV.340). Taste isn’t a matter of good and bad but of “what is “at most of interest as entertainment,” not of need (IV.340). Nonetheless, given the social character of human beings and their consequent inclination to imitate one another, taste has a connection to morality, inasmuch as imitation leads to action and actions can indeed be good or bad. The rules of taste are relative to “climates, morals, government, institutions” as well as “age, sex, [and] character” (IV.340), but “all the true models of taste are in nature” (IV.341). Unfortunately, in civil society “those who lead us” in matters of taste are “the artists, the nobles, and the rich, and what leads them is their interest or their vanity” (IV.341).
In this study, Emile should “consult the taste of women in physical things connected with the judgment of the senses”—do women generally not have keener senses of scent and flavor than men?—and “consult the taste of men in moral things that depend more on the understanding”—on ‘thinking abstractly.’ Rousseau deplores the recently established authority of women in literary matters; “since they have set about judging books and relentlessly producing them, they know longer know anything,” having distracted themselves from the province of their strength (IV.341).
In addition to studying taste, Emile will refine his own. “I shall go further still to preserve in him a pure and healthy taste” (IV.342). He will now begin to read books, “enjoyable books”; he will learn “how to analyze speech, to make him sensitive to all the beauties of eloquence and diction” (IV.342). He will learn Latin “in order to know French” (IV.342), but more, to appreciate “a certain simplicity of taste that speaks straight to the heart and is found only in the writings of the ancients” (IV.342). Just as he already has found solid political judgments in the ancient historians he will find solid literary taste in them, too, as they are “rich in facts and sparing in judgments,” just the opposite of so many of the moderns (IV.342). “Our bombastic lapidary style is good only for inflating dwarfs. The ancients showed men as they are naturally, and one saw that they were men.” (IV.343).
In reading these books, he will find that “there is no true progress of reason in the human species, because all that is gained on one side is lost on the other: all minds always start from the same point, and since the time used in finding out what others have thought is wasted for learning to think for ourselves, we have acquired more enlightenment and less vigor of mind. We exercise our minds, like our arms, by having them do everything with tools and nothing by themselves” (IV.343), making ourselves dependent on “newspapers, translations, and dictionaries.” (344). These are carriages tempting us never to walk, never to go anywhere under our own power.
Emile will go to the theater “to study not morals but taste” (IV.344). The theater teaches no truth but it does delight and entertain. “There is no school in which one learns so well the art of pleasing men and of interesting the human heart” (IV.344). The same goes for poetry, which has “exactly the same aim” (IV.344). “My principle aim in teaching him to feel and to love the beautiful of all sorts is to fix his affections and tastes on it, to prevent his natural appetites from becoming corrupted, and to see to it that he does not one day seek in his riches the means for being happy” (IV.344). Admittedly, “taste is only the art of knowing all about petty things,” but “the agreeableness of life depends on a tissue of petty things” (IV.344). Properly to appreciate petty things is what Rousseau calls “real voluptuousness, apart from prejudices and opinion” (IV.344). It is epicureanism rightly understood, and thus rightly limited.
6. Lessons of a Savoyard Vicar of taste
As before, Rousseau turns from the model of ‘his Emile,’ “whose pure and healthy heart can no longer serve as a model for anyone” in modern times, to seek “in myself an example that is more evident and closer to the morals of the reader” (IV.344). Rousseau, it might be said, is the adult version of the youth whom the Savoyard vicar advised.
If I were a rich man, he begins, I would be like all other rich men in some respects. I would be insolent and low, “sensitive and delicate toward myself alone,” disdainful toward “the miseries of the rabble”; I would put my fortune at the service of satisfying my pleasures, making this my sole occupation (IV.345). But I would also differ from the others. I would be sensual and voluptuous, not proud and vain, indolent not ostentatious. I would use my riches to purchase “leisure and freedom,” tempering “my sensuality” for the sake of my health (IV.345). And, like Emile in one way, I would “always stay as close as possible to nature, in order to indulge the senses I received from nature” (IV.345). I would enjoy the four seasons, not flee them in ‘vacationing’; I would eat foods in season, at the peak of their flavor; I would have few servants, “as all that is done by means of other people is done badly” (IV.346). My life would be active, unburdened by sedentary boredom. My house and its furnishings would be simple. I wouldn’t gamble, except for small stakes—for enjoyment, not for greed in hoped-for gain. I would dress modestly so as not to flaunt my rank over others.
In my relations with those around me, “the only bond of my associations would be mutual attachment, agreement of tastes, suitableness of characters,” “giv[ing] myself over to them as a man and not as one of the rich” (IV.348). “I would want to have a society around me, not a court; friends, and not protegés” (IV.348). Both independence and equality, then, “permit[ting] my relationships to have all the candor of benevolence; and where neither duty nor interest entered in any way, pleasure and friendship would alone make the law” (IV.348-349). As for women, love like friendship is “infallibly killed by money”; I would ‘keep’ no woman. “It would be sweet to be liberal toward the person one loves, if this did not constitute a purchase” (IV.349). Rousseau adds, prudently, “it remains to be known where there is a woman with whom this procedure would not be a folly” (IV.349).
“The people hardly ever get bored” because they live active lives; “many days of fatigue make them taste a few days of festival with delight” (IV.350). For the rich, on the contrary, “boredom is their great plague,” as they “pass their lives in fleeing it and being overtaken by it” (IV.350). Women, especially, are “devoured by it, under the name of vapors” or, as a later generation would say in more clinical language, neurasthenia (IV.350). Better, then, for the rich to live a simple life in the country, pursuing active, outdoor pastimes with friends. In such a life, “each of us, openly preferring himself to everyone else” in the modern manner, “would find it good that all the others similarly preferred themselves to him” (IV.352). This isn’t Emile’s egalitarianism. It is an egalitarianism that will make sense to wealthy men and women tired of the niceties of the drawing room. In the society of the country, rightly lived, “we would be our own valets in order to be our own masters; each of us would be served by all the others; the time would pass without being measured” (IV.352). “If some country celebration brought the inhabitants of the place together, my companions and I would be among the first ones there,” bringing to marriage celebrations “gifts as simple” as the “good people” in the families and friends who are rejoicing (IV.352).
But, the aristocrat will want to know, “What about the hunt?” (IV.352). Hounds and foxes, excitement. Yes, but also extensive lands, guards, rents; quarrels, hatred, and lawsuits; resentful neighbors; poachers, and therefore guards. “Do you wish to disengage the pleasures from their pains? Then remove exclusiveness from the pleasures. The more you leave them to men in common, the more you will always taste them pure.” (IV.353). If my neighbors reduce the amount of game when they hunt, “there will be more skill in seeking it and more pleasure in shooting it” (IV.353). “Exclusive pleasures are the death of pleasure” for naturally sociable man (IV.353). “The demon of property infects everything it touches” (IV.354). Therefore, “when I am rich, I shall act in this respect just as I did when I was poor” (IV.354).
Why this excursus, this advice to aristocrats and oligarchs “on true taste,” on “the choice of agreeable leisure” (IV.354)? Once again, as with his remarks on religion and on sexual conduct, Rousseau readies the Second Estate and the upper bourgeoisie for the collapse of the regime in which they have only seemingly prospered. In France, they have been drawn into the cities by the Bourbon monarchy, by the vulgar splendor and moral corruption of Versailles. That monarchy is doomed. Get out of town and befriend the people before it, and you, are ruined. If you object that the simple enjoyments of country life, no longer in the castles of the feudal aristocracy but among the people, ‘first among equals,’ “are within the reach of all men and that one does not need to be rich to enjoy them,” you are right (IV.354). “This is precisely what I wanted to get at” (IV.354). Your riches are quite likely to disappear—and if not yours, then the riches of your sons and daughters. “The man who has taste and is truly voluptuous has nothing to do with riches. It suffices for him to be free and master of himself.” (IV.354).
As for Emile, at some point he can’t get away from Paris fast enough. He has satisfied himself that Sophie isn’t there. If she isn’t in Paris, why would he stay?
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