Geoffrey Hawthorn: Thucydides on Politics: Back to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
The reader may safely ignore the sinking feeling he may get upon reading the subtitle. Although Hawthorn offers a few pages on contemporary international politics, he has written no tendentious, ‘lessons-from-Thucydides’ screed. Much more ambitiously, and fortified by careful study of the text, he sets out to be Thucydides’ Thucydides, tracing the historian’s narrative, probing, judging, guessing, arguing with other scholars and with Thucydides himself, always illuminating. Like his philosophic mentor, Bernard Williams, Hawthorn displays a resolutely English intelligence, venturing no grand theories but bringing out defensible arguments from sensible consideration of details mastered. The result is that rarity, a readable commentary on a classic book, teaching readers how better to think about politics and war in and among communities that seek, somehow, to rule themselves.
What makes politics difficult is the number and complexity of the causes that operate in human life. Explicitly, Thucydides attributes the Pelopponesian War to one main geopolitical cause: Spartans’ fear of the rise of the Athenian empire, backed by its navy. He makes another cause visible, slightly beneath the surface: Two distinct regimes, one oligarchic, the other democratic, distrust one another, each concerned that the other might aid the partisans of its domestic regime rivals. Hawthorn proceeds with caution, however, as Thucydides’ book “has never been easy to read”; a “possession for all time,” its author calls it, but not easily owned by any reader, now or in antiquity.
“Its subject though is clear. It is politics: men (all men) seeking power over others using it to pursue ends that are sometimes clear, sometimes not, never being sure what the outcomes will be.” Thucydides “allows one to see that politics is rarely admirable but always unavoidable, owes less to reason than we might suppose and allows no practical, moral or constitutional closure”; on the other hand, “at no point can it be said that character does not matter.” Contingencies dominate politics and war, and character matters very much indeed if there are no comforting ‘iron laws of History’ to put one’s trust in.
In writing his history, Thucydides’ intention “was almost the opposite of that of his most prominent predecessor, Herodotus,” who seeks to preserve the memory of “the great and wondrous achievements displayed by the Greeks and the barbarians, and especially their reasons for fighting each other,” in the Persian War. In writing what he calls his “inquiry,” Thucydides aims not so much as remembrance as usefulness; the usefulness of his narrative derives from its truthfulness, to the historian’s careful measuring of “the distances between what was thought and said and what transpired.” What is more, “Logoi, the accounts people give, their analysis, reflection, calculation and debate, are [themselves] important erga, things done, political acts to be seen as such in the light of others.” Hobbes understood this, remarking that Thucydides’ way of writing “secretly instruct[s] the reader, and more effectually than can possibly be done by precept.” He meant that in presenting both the arguments and the actions, the speeches and the deeds, of the principal statesmen on both sides of the conflict, Thucydides impels his reader toward figuring out the truth of the matter for himself, and so to fortify himself, to take possession of this possession for all time. And given the permanence of human nature and the political life natural to human beings, what has happened in the Peloponnese in the fifth century B.C. “can be expected to happen again or some time in the future,” in “much the same ways,” as Thucydides himself remarks. His alert readers will have readied themselves for that likelihood. Histories too are both logoi and erga.
Thucydides begins his account of the second Peloponnesian War before the first war, which began in 460. After two invasions of Greece by the Persian Empire, repelled by Greek victories at Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale, Athens formed the Delian League as what we would now call a deterrent against any subsequent Persian ambitions and a defense in case those ambitions re-ignited. The League became the foundation of their own empire, itself founded on the navy it built in defense against the Persians. The Spartans didn’t join the League, their long-term commitment to any alliance effectively prevented by the prospect of a rebellion of the helot class at home. When the Spartans first asked for, and then declined Athenian assistance in putting down such a revolt in the nearby polis at Messenia, the offended Athenians ended the alliance with Sparta; “an open difference first emerged,” Thucydides writes, between the two regimes. The first war lasted from 460 to 445, ending in a treaty which was supposed to last for thirty years. According to its terms, “Sparta was to retain its allies in the Peloponnese and Boeotia and also Megara, all of which were to be self-governing, so long as they did not move to what by this time was coming to be called ‘democracy.'”
The second war began in 431. The worrisome naval dominance of Athens spurred the Spartans to action, but “there was no ultimate necessity to this,” inasmuch as the Athenian navy might not have been built up at all, absent the Persian threat of two generations earlier. Athens engaged in no provocations under the terms of the treaty. “The Spartans would not appear to have had anything, as he puts it, that they could no longer bear; anything material to fear.” Why, then, did it happen?
Distinguishing between aitia (the unspoken but real reason for an action) and prophesis (the reason spoken publicly), Thucydides identifies the Spartans’ fear as the “truest” but least openly stated motive for fighting the second war. Other, publicly stated but subsidiary arguments were the arguments of their allies, especially the Corinthians, who disputed quarreled with Athens and one of its allies over influence in a couple of poleis in the 430s, disputes fueled by the Corinthians’ “pride or honor.” For their part, in the course of these quarrels events took the Athenians “further than they appear to have wanted to go,” as an intendedly deterrent show of naval force escalated. Thucydides and Hawthorn concur that the Athenians were at least “in the right by the terms of the thirty-ear peace” in acting to defend one of its allies against Sparta’s ally, the Corinthians, angered at “the repeated indifference” of Athens and its ally “to their standing and honor as a serious power,” and also somewhat ashamed at “having so openly to depend on Sparta,” a dependence belying their claim to be such a power. But “the true reasons” for the war lay in Sparta.
Sparta’s king, Archidamos, a man “with a reputation for intelligence and moderation,” cautioned that Sparta lacked the naval resources to fight Athens successfully at this time. He called for patient war preparation and an effort at finding more allies. Knowing the character of the Spartan regime, a timocracy or rule of the honorable, he urged them against feeling shame at such a slow and cautious policy, appealing to the honor victory will bring, and observing that the victorious polis “will be the one trained in the hardest schools of necessity.” He lost the rhetorical battle in the assembly of timocrats to an ephor who called decisiveness the “true prudence,’ claiming that the gods were on the side of Sparta and its allies—a ‘prudentialism’ that actually played the Spartans’ love of honor. Nonetheless, in action as distinguished from argument, Sparta sent three separate delegations to Athens, offering peace. It was Pericles, who had established himself as de facto monarch over the Athenian democracy, who persuaded his countrymen to reject the peace offers, correctly observing that Sparta was ill-prepared for war. “A majority of Athenian citizens appear to have been pleased to face war,” as “they believed they had the edge.” We must conclude, then, that “the true reasons” for the war did not lie in Sparta, at least not exclusively. Thucydides and Hawthorn leave this point for the reader to figure out.
Pericles placed his bet on Athenian sea power, demonstrating it by a couple of minor naval operations against poleis the Corinthians had seized from local rulers. It was in the first winter of the war that Pericles delivered his funeral oration praising soldiers fallen that summer in skirmishes, an oration directed at Athenian farmers forced into the city by the Spartan threat and at Athenians displeased at his reluctance to prosecute the war more vigorously. He needed to make both groups more ardent lovers of the Athenian polis, and he did so by an appeal to the kind of honor that fits the regime of democracy, consisting of pride in material strength; the glory of the fallen; the virtues of democracy itself, including law-abidingness and private freedom; courage in foreign policy; and finally by appealing to a sort of prudence congenial to democracy, Athens’ policy of making friends by conferring favors, not receiving them—a practice that weakens one’s friends. The refutation of Pericles came not in words, of which he was the master, but nature, in the form of a plague, which made death inglorious. Pericles nonetheless mounted two expeditions the following summer; “perhaps he simply wanted to get as many soldiers and sailors out of the city he could afford to,” or (again, perhaps) “he was putting on a show to distract discontent.” In any event, he deflected blame from himself, delivering still another speech appealing now to fear: Though self-governing within, Athens acts the tyrant with foreigners; like all tyrants, they may have been wrong to take power but would imperil themselves by letting it go. He ends with an invocation of the glory of Athens, but only as a coda to a grimmer message.
This means that Pericles’ de facto monarchy still rested on the democracy. Pericles “was fighting for his political life.” And he did so successfully, thanks to his extraordinary strengths of character and intelligence in “direct[ing] and where necessary distract[ing] the citizens and control[ling] them.” “No other leader after Pericles managed to dominate the city for so long,” as “they were lesser men.” The later, famously disastrous, expedition to Sicily, an unnecessary and separate war that was “a mistake to have thought of fighting.” Even this was not enough to bring defeat in the Peloponnesian War, which resulted by subsequent factional infighting. “The defeat was an avoidable disaster”; “Athens, it can be argued, could have won.”
At the beginning of the war, and for years thereafter, neither side could devise a sound strategy for sustaining an attack on the other. Insofar as Pericles arrived at a strategy, it was defensive—to exhaust the invading Spartans on land while commanding the seas. He had no idea as to how Athens might actually defeat Sparta or Corinth. Accordingly, Thucydides presents the several events of the first eighteen years of the war as illustrations of “the circumstance and experience of war in general and its attendant political complications” rather than elements of any grand plan. For example, the 429 Spartan expedition against Plataea, Athens’ ally, “reveals much about the lack of strategic thinking, the problems of distance between the cities and their commanders in the field, and above all, the dangers of relying on allies whose natural first interest was their own.” The Athenian statesmen faced similar imponderables. For himself and his readers, Thucydides evidently commends pondering imponderableness.
The speeches by Athenian statesmen Cleon and Diodotos on the question of whether to slaughter the Mytilenaeans for attempting to break their alliance with Athens and go over to the Spartans affords Thucydides the chance to examine political speech as action. The passions of fear, anger, and hope not only cause men to divide into political factions, they also “cause men to divide within themselves and slide into self-deception.” In their speeches, both statesmen “deliberat[e] on the politics of deliberation,” Cleon concluding that “the delights of oratory cancel common sense” and Diodotos maintaining that the “haste and high emotion” which saturate political debate, coupled with the audience’s assumption that every speaker advances his self-interest, making democratic Athens “the only city so clever that it is impossible to do good here openly and without deceit.” Getting down to reality, however, both men admit that the democracy does not and cannot rule foreign cities democratically; their dispute centers instead on how to conduct such rule under this circumstance. Cleon advocates slaughtering the Mytilenaeans in order to deter other cities from rebelling; Diodotos advocates sparing all but the ringleaders of the rebellion by pretending that most Mytilenaeans are not guilty and by fortifying the pro-Athenian Mytilene faction. “The difference between Cleon and Diodotos was merely that one was afraid of what might follow if Athens did not use extreme force, the other of what might follow if it did.” Sure enough, the Athenian assembly votes for Diodotos’ policy—but not for the prudent reason he had given. “This was war; ambitions were urgent, nerves were on edge and there was anger everywhere…. One can be struck less by the fact that speech was idle than by the fact that men in these circumstances gave time to it at all.” The war between the two alliances ignited civil wars—that is, regime wars—throughout Greece. In Thucydides’ words, “practically the whole Greek world was in turmoil as everywhere there were rival efforts by the leaders of the populace to bring in the Athenians and by the oligarchs to bring in the Spartans.” Atrocities ensued in this struggle for domination, as “reckless audacity,” “daring without logismos,” and the abandonment of moderation ruled men’s souls. Hawthorn supplements this analysis, writing that it was “the disruption of everyday relations” in wartime that made formerly political disputes so poisonous, converting political rivals into “enemies of an intensely personal kind.” “Civil strife inverts values and subverts the semantics of peace,” by which he means that such words as ‘sincerity’ and ‘moderation’ meet contemptuous dismissal, as men combine cynicism and indignation in a way not seen in normal circumstances. He rightly observes that Thucydides nonetheless does not “follow the mischievous sophists of his time” in denying truth altogether. Thucydides “grip on enduring truths of the human condition remains bleakly sure.”
By winter 424-423 the Spartans were “in despair,” the Athenians optimistic in light of what Thucydides calls “their current run of good luck.” He concurs with the Athenian statesmen (including Pericles and Diodotus) who understood that hope is “as dangerous, indeed, as despair.” The gods do not compel human beings to acts of folly, nor do “chains of antecedent causes” (what thinkers latterly call ‘History’). For him Ananke or necessity inheres in being bound by what one believes themselves “to be in their own or someone else’s eyes, compelled by the real or perceived power of others, and impelled by their own.” The now-careless Athenians and the now-hesitant Spartans played out this form of necessity in their conflict over the polis at Megara, on the isthmus connecting Attica to the Peloponnese—a ‘geopolitical chokepoint,’ as we now say. Megara has broken with Athens in 446, but in 424 democrats seized rule there; this notwithstanding, the popular party feared the Athenians, who were hardly ‘democratic’ in dealing with their allies. Athenian and Spartan troops confronted one another, Thucydides himself a commander of the Athenians, Brasidas the Spartan general. Brasidas is one of the few Spartan commanders Thucydides respects; he “could be diplomatic” and “he also moved with speed”—neither trait characteristically Spartan. Brasidas also understood supply chains, targeting the polis at Amphipolos, a major Athenian source for the timber they used for the masts their navy depended upon. Upon receiving a desperate call for assistance from the Athenian general stationed nearby, Thucydides had no way to respond in time. “Necessity now descended on Thucydides,” who went into exile for the next two decades. “Had he not,” Hawthorn remarks, “we might not have the text we do.” Meanwhile, the prudent Brasidas proved a mild conqueror, giving other members of the Athenian empire/alliance good reason to consider switching sides. In effect, Brasidas enacted the kind of proposal Diodotos had proposed to the Athenians themselves. But these poleis underestimated Athenian power and resolve, “preferr[ing] to make their judgments on the basis of wishful thinking rather than prudent foresight,” as Thucydides puts it.
This brings Hawthorn to consider the idea of ‘interest,’ for which no Greek word existed when Thucydides wrote. The Greeks thought rather in terms of a closely connected set of ideas: dunamis or physical power; arche or command; and cratos or rule. Taken together, they amount to aitia or ‘real interest,’ sometimes translated as ‘real reason’ or ‘real purpose,’ a translation Hawthorn rejects as a touch too rationalistic. “The power of Athens’ dominion or ’empire,’ the Athenians had explained in their speech at Sparta (to an audience that would surely have known), enabled them to allay their fears, maintain their honor and pursue their ‘self-interest’ in material gain.” Athenians and men generally must therefore understand where power was (in the authority of custom, law, office, sheer force, even “occasionally in the force of the better argument”), what to use it for (cementing unity at home and among allies, punishing, conquering, deterring, and how to deploy it (alone or in alliance with others). By the year 421, these complex considerations proved so entirely imponderable that both sides agreed to a truce. When it ended the following year, both Cleon and Brasidas were killed in battle, removing the two most effective pro-war statesmen from the principal contending poleis. Athens and Sparta settled on a peace treaty, but their allies, fearing hegemony over themselves would lock into place as a consequent, continued in their restiveness. “For most of the time, political entities in Greece were driven by the wish to rule themselves.” Such a necessity, and such an ‘interest,’ inheres not in the gods or in ‘History’ but in human nature.
“Political anxiety” and “radical uncertainty” ensued. “All believed that whatever their interests were—and to most, beyond their immediate security, these were not clear—they could not be assured of realizing these without an alliance with at least one other state; and then could not be assured that the alliance they made would not excite opposition from yet another and therefore undermine the purpose they had in making it.” Under such circumstances, no clear strategic thinking came forth, anywhere. Emotions ruled in place of either principled or prudential reasoning. However, Thucydides “nowhere indicates that he himself thought of the emotions, feelings, pathe or pathemata as a class,” neither using the word nor even using an especially rich set of words indicating the variety of emotions. He usually restricts himself to fear, hope, and anger, and inclines to conceive of a ‘tight fit’ between what we would analyze as motive (including emotions), intention, and action: “pre-volitional, pre-reflective commitments to one or another state of affairs, commitments that we can discover in what we and others think of how we and they act,” often covered by the Greek word, eros. Hawthorn doubts that these “commitments” “are those that we might feel now or even immediately grasp,” and gives the example of hubris. To us it suggests pride, especially pride flouting divine or human authority. “For fifth-century Greeks, by contrast, hubris was a deliberative act, the direct and amoral practice of demeaning others for the sheer pleasure of doing so.”
As seen, above all, in Alcibiades. “Driven by a restless desire for personal power,” “compulsively competitive and prone to jealousy,” supremely confident, “Alcibiades delights in not merely in defeating his rivals but in humiliating them.” The spirit of Alcibiades pervaded the Athenians generally in their dealings with the polis at Melos, a minor ally of Sparta. If the most celebrated speech in Thucydides remains Pericles’ funeral oration, a call for love of country, for taking ‘pride’ in being an Athenian in the praiseworthy sense we use the term today, the most infamous speech remains the Melian ‘dialogue’ of the year 416, goes far beyond the ‘foreign policy realism’ attributed to it by most scholars today. In fact no ‘realistic’ motive spurred the Athenians to take Melos; “it was not particularly rich” and “had little strategic significance.” Rather, having lost on land to the Spartans at Mantinea, the Athenians wanted “to demonstrate their superiority in moving at sea” by acting and speaking in a manner “directly insulting to the Spartans.” When the Melians dared to reject the Athenians’ demand of unconditional, they were rewarded by the death of all their men and the enslavement of their women and children. Their ‘point’ (as we would say) was that Sparta could do nothing for them. “It was theater, the demonstration to others and oneself of one’s power to demean and an expression of pleasure in doing so.”
All this noticed, “Not everything in politics in war is necessity, interest, or the thrill of doing down opponents.” There is also “restlessness, a diffuse and unfocused disposition to find something to act against.” Hawthorn regards the Athenians’ ill-fated second expedition against Sicily in 415 as an instance of this; “most of them did not know quite what they had in mind.” Alcibiades fomented such mindlessness, making “his self-flattery theirs.” (“And they were enchanted.”) In the wake of the triumph at Melos, “Athenians were affirming to themselves what Athens could once again be”; they were making Athens great again, to adapt a phrase from the American scene. But in the event they “had propelled themselves to a distant venture the purposes of which had been poorly defined and for which, almost whatever they intended, their own resources were inadequate, local support lacking, the opposition formidable and their leadership uncertain. Only clever tactics and luck could redeem it.” They didn’t, and Alcibiades skipped over to the Spartan side, having decided that Athens must not be allowed to sin even once against demagoguery. And he gave his new sponsors good advice: Defeat the Athenian strategy (it turns out that he could discern one) of encircling Sparta by establishing a military foothold a few miles north of Athens. Meanwhile, in Sicily the Athenians lost and their generals executed. “For the first time, writes Thucydides… the Athenians had in Syracuse come up against a city like their own: a rich and democratically inclined place whose internal divisions they could not exploit.” That, but mostly ill fortune, caused their defeat and humiliation. Moderate General Nicias and vigorous, daring General Demosthenes’ virtues had served Athens well for a decade, but in the new circumstances they failed. Narrowly considered, Alcibiades was right to get out of town. After all, if Fortune’s wheel spun again, “he might return to lead it.”
The Athenian defeat clarified matters. The politics of the war became “simpler than before”:”The Athenians wanted to save themselves and what they could of their dominion, and the Peloponnesians and disaffected parties in Athens’ subject states wanted to end it.” Ever resilient, the Athenians gathered their wits and, for once, submitted to “good discipline in everything,” initially under a board of elders. It didn’t last, but the disaffection with democracy endured. Ever alert, Alcibiades saw that the Athenians might now be persuaded that they needed him, and let it be known that he would obligingly return if an oligarchy replaced the democracy. The prominent general and politician Phrynicos prudently supposed that Alcibiades cared no more for oligarchy than for democracy, preferring himself to either, and that Athens’ restive allies didn’t care what the regime in Athens was, only that it oppressed them; in a rare, not to say unique event, Alcibiades found himself out-schemed and his return blocked. Nonetheless, in 411 the democracy collapsed, initially replaced by the oligarchic regime of “the 400” (which included Phrynicos), then by “the 5000,” a regime whose exact nature remains unclear (oligarchy? mixed regime?), but which did not include Phrynicos, who had been assassinated in the meantime. However they might be classified, the “new rulers in Athens believed that they faced a simple choice: Athens had either to get support and protection from Persia or to make a new peace and alliance with Sparta.”
Before the new regime could do much more than consolidate, Athens sustained another defeat, worse than the one in Sicily: the loss of Euboea, the breadbasket of their empire, located perilously close to the Piraeus itself. But the Spartans as usual exercised caution and didn’t go for the knockout. Alcibiades, who had defected from Sparta to Persia in 412 was reinstated as a general by the new regime at Athens, helped to organize defenses, and the war continued, although Alcibiades took care not to return to the city itself until 407. Thucydides abruptly ends his history with the events of 411; he died in 404. By then the Peloponnesian forces were about to win the war, having finally achieved superiority over the Athenians at sea—”an ironic end” for the ships-proud regime. Still, and as always, “Thucydides allows one to see” that “things could have gone differently until the very last days.” Reality may constrain, but events march forward in no inevitable course.
Hawthorn situates himself between the stance taken by Jacqueline de Romilly—that the statesmen Thucydides portrays acted according to rational strategies—and that of Hans-Peter Stahl, who claims that the Athenians and human beings generally act according to emotions defying rational understanding. He adopts instead Nietzsche’s view, that thought and action both “are guided by pre-rational commitments,” but that the combination of these three forces “explain what people make happen, which can sometimes be nothing.” Accordingly, Thucydides exhibits a preference for moderation in politics, a resolute search for the best evidence in uncovering what political men did and intended to do, not regardless of what they say but with the knowledge that what they say, however deceptive, itself constitutes a political fact.
War may be, as Thucydides writes, a violent master, but not an all-powerful one. Tyche or fate does not rule absolutely; the Athenians, for example “were not predetermined to be defeated in Sicily.” “Although all events have causes, these are many and varied, and they and their effects often occur in unexpected conjunctions with others… and except when subject to the unassailable power of another, and sometimes even when they are, people are not bound to act in just one way.”
For all of these reasons, “there can be no resolution” in political life “and, for reasons we may never know, Thucydides was saved from any temptation to arrive at one.” He may or may not have deliberately left his book unfinished, but it is right that he did.
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