Lewis E. Lehrman: Lincoln and Churchill: Statesmen at War. Guilford: Stackpole Books, 2018.
John von Heyking: Comprehensive Judgment and Absolute Selflessness: Winston Churchill on Politics and Friendship. South Bend: St. Augustine’s Press, 2018.
Originally published in Social Science and Modern Society, Volume 56, Number 2, March/April 2019. Republished with permission.
Imitating their colleagues in the other sciences, modern social scientists often understand human life impersonally, reducing political lie to sub-political elements (‘race, class, and gender’), to institutional structures, or simply to power and ‘power relations.’ When asked about persons, modern scientists predictably point to the elements composing the human psyche: once to ‘id, ego, and superego,’ now increasingly to brain chemistry. As for the nature of scientists themselves, they too strive for impersonality, eschewing prejudice and emotion, forming their hypotheses and testing them for measurable results.
The impersonality of modern science and scientists has yielded many discoveries and will not be abandoned. It perceives reality insofar as reality really is impersonal. But not all reality is so. The real-world experiences of persons as kind or cruel, just or unjust, courageous or cowardly—more the experience of them, and oneself, as mixtures of all those qualities and more, yet also somehow wholes —never lets us for long. There was Einstein’s Theory; here was also Albert Einstein. Neither can be fully understood in terms of the other, or even as the concatenation of events connecting them.
The authors here approach politics through persons. Lehrman writes history in the Plutarchian tradition, considering Abraham Lincoln and Winston Churchill as parallel lives. He understands by narrating. Von Heyking writes political science in the tradition of Aristotle—who, it will be recalled, understands political regimes not only in terms of ruling structures but of rulers, and rulers not only quantitatively (the one, the few, the many) bu ‘qualitatively’ (morally good or bad). He understands by analyzing.
Lehrman’s “aim in this study is… to consider both great men in an intimate comparison of supreme command at the summit of human endurance—namely, was of national survival.” He does so by telling “a story of character and statecraft.” Lincoln and Churchill “faced a similar challenge: how to mobilized ill-prepared nations, and how to organize and lead talented teams” of ambitious and often recalcitrant subordinates. Fortunately, although the nations were ill-prepared, the statesmen were not, both having studied and practiced political life as professional devisers of arguments—Lincoln primarily as a lawyer, Churchill as a parliamentarian. They had mastered the English language, spoken and written, “develop[ing] the mental precision by which to define disputes clearly”—as Lehrman wittily and rightly adds, “Lincoln as president in few words, Churchill as prime minister in more.” They understood that the reasons for fighting a war “must be explained to the public”—a point often lost on later political figures, who seem to have concentrated their rhetorical attention on ‘sound bites’ instead of thoughts.
While Churchill had much more extensive military and executive experience, Lincoln’s extraordinary powers of intellectual concentration enabled him to learn more efficiently and, arguably, to make fewer errors. As to character, “the steely determination shared by Churchill and Lincoln was forged on the anvil of political defeat.” Both men endured conspicuous public failures in the years before their countrymen finally turned to them in crisis. Understanding those crises as threats to the regime of democratic republicanism itself, they refused compromise with the enemy “accommodation of tyrannous evil was anathema for Lincoln and Churchill.” They knew how to talk to people when things looked bad, how to overcome the spirit of pessimism which must have tempted them in their own lives, many times.
Each embodied core principles of heir republics. Lincoln served as chief executive under a written Constitution which gave him independence from the legislature. He learned from Euclid the elements of deductive logic, and he learned from the Declaration of Independence the political application of those elements. Churchill, who observed this feature of American political thought in his wartime associates, served as chief executive under an unwritten constitution, a regime in which he headed his party in Parliament, where discursive speech and inductive logic can sometimes predominate. Supremely prudent when they needed to be, they arrived at their sound decisions from opposite beginnings. And no only intellectually but morally: Lincoln’s moderate and self-governed temperament reinforced his clarity of thought, whereas Churchill’s extraordinarily wide experience, resulting from his adventurousness and generosity of spirit, tempered his passions. Within the four corners of their regimes, Lincoln proved better at managing partisanship, being “less self-centered,” thus better able “to divine and satisfy the needs of minor loyalists who sustained his party and his armies in the field,” while Churchill famously acted as if he were a bit bigger than the political parties he joined. Lincoln had habits learned in a democratic society, Churchill the habits of an aristocrat. They proved what Tocqueville had insisted, a century before: both democrats and aristocrats can and should act to defend republicanism.
They faced regime crises under circumstances that differed. Lincoln and the Union had no international allies but needed none. The United States only needed foreign countries to stay out. Alone in 1940, Churchill desperately needed “to drag the Americans in,” as he put i, leaving it to Hitler to drag the Russians in, too. Lincoln’s solitary, ‘executive’ type of character served him well in his circumstance; Churchill’s gregarious, ‘parliamentary’ type of character served him equally well. Churchill not only courted President Roosevelt out of strategic calculation, but genuinely liked the man. Lincoln never met Lord Palmerston, and didn’t need to curry his favor.
They set he highest standards for themselves. Lincoln the democrat studied George Washington’s “character and appearance—a model of composure and self-control, especially under fire”—and held up the Great Compromiser, Henry Clay, as his “beau ideal of a statesman”—a model of political moderation. Churchill the aristocrat was bred for his task, growing up in the household of a prime minister and descending from the great Duke of Marlborough, whose life he studied and chronicled in his finest book. Neither man satisfied himself with understanding good men, only. Lincoln the lawyer “habitually studied the opposite side of every disputed question, of every law case, of every political issue, more exhaustively, if possible, than his own side,” and never got surprised in court or in politics. Churchill the parliamentarian said, “Facts are better than dreams,” and his quick apprehension of tyrants ‘Left’ and ‘Right,’ from Lenin to Stalin to Hitler, shows that he paid close attention to their arguments and their actions. The ability to foresee the future only seems uncanny to those who aren’t listening to what others are saying now. Both men gathered information and (often contradictory) opinions before acting. This may seem an obvious procedure, except when one notices how many people never do it.
As commanders-in-chief in wartime, Lincoln and Churchill knew that military action is an instrument for victory, but military victory itself is only an instrument for achieving a political settlement. As Lincoln’s young aides John Hay and John G. Nicolay later wrote: “Military writers love to fight over the campaigns of history exclusively by he rules of he professional chess-board, always subordinated, often totally ignoring, the elements of politics. This is a radical error. Every war is begun, dominated, and ended by political considerations…. War and politics, campaign and statecraft, are Siamese twins, inseparable and independent.” Lincoln fought a civil war to save the Union as the American Founders had conceived it, no merely to make Georgia howl and submit. Churchill ordered the firebombing of cities to effect the political reconstruction of Germany; its destruction was in his mind the indispensable preliminary, but only a preliminary, to that. Each man kept his eye on the supreme political prize: the defense of regimes of liberty against regimes that valorized slavery. They understood ‘geopolitics’ as politics, no only as an appreciation of the ways one might acquire and hold territory.
Therefore, as Lincoln “approached his second term and the likely defeat of the Confederacy, he would focus on the permanent solution to the problem of slavery, restoration of the Union, and reconstruction of the rebel South.” Similarly, Churchill “opposed emasculating Germany” economically after the war (as even a man of de Gaulle’s caliber initially wanted); he strongly endorsed the Marshall Plan, foreseeing that the Soviet Union would quickly turn from alliance with the republics to deadly opposition, exploiting a much-improved strategic position in Europe. Lincoln’s assassination prevented any attempt by him to ‘win the peace’; Lehrman faults Churchill’s aristocratic character for “fail[ing] to devise a compelling vision for postwar Britain at home,” a failure “leading to this decisive defeat in the parliamentary elections of July 1945.” Churchill didn’t see that one coming, having concentrated his Marlborough-formed mind on “battlefield maps and the global geography of the postwar world.” To this day, he is esteemed more in American than in his own country. Lincoln today is hardly noticed in England at all, but rivals Washington for the position of first in the hearts of his countrymen.
As prime minister, Churchill spoke repeatedly with a cabinet and to a parliament consisting of men he knew. As president, Lincoln “had but slight personal intimacy” with any of his cabinet officers or the congressmen. It is Churchill’s reliance on friendship that political scientist John von Heyking seeks to understand, in an original and fascinating reinterpretation not only of Churchill’s statesmanship but of political life generally.
But perhaps not quite original. As von Heyking himself emphasizes, Aristotle regards friendship as indispensable to both ethics and politics. He classifies friendships as aiming at use, pleasure, or the good, although of course friends will often combine these aims. Friendship moderates factionalism, appealing to homonomia or like-mindedness, even when political men compete in rival parties. As a young member of Parliament, Churchill joined with his friend F. E. Smith to form the “Other Club” (as distinguished from “The Club,” an exclusive bunch dating back to the eighteenth century, from which these younger men had been, indeed, excluded). They intended the Other Club as “a space of convivium and conversation above the strife of partisan debate,” its most good-humored rule being “Nothing in the rules or the intercourse of the Club shall interfere with the rancor or asperity of party politics.” Nor did it, but it also allowed rivals on the floor of the House the chance to lift a drink together when the public debating was done and to do some confidential business. In von Heyking’s high-minded Aristotelian formulation, members enjoyed moments of sunaisthesis or shared perception “enhance[ing] each other’s knowledge of the world and of themselves” while swapping stories and sharing jokes.
Under such circumstances, friendships come to underlie politics, breaking the spell of ideology, the bane of modern public life. This gives political men the intellectual and emotional ‘space’ to think prudentially and even, at best, magnanimously. The rigidity of deductive rationalism, exaggerated in practice by one’s psychic investment in defending every deduction to the death, give way to conversation, to working things out. When you know and like your opponent, a touch of charity comes in; you want to defeat him, but you don’t want to ruin him. One may think this a modest accomplishment, until a glance at the corpse-strewn landscape of politics in Churchill’s century and ours persuades otherwise.
More, even the most nearly self-sufficient, great soul, one like Churchill’s “desires and needs friends.” “He needs assistance to achieve great deeds but, more than that, he needs a friend with whom to enjoy those deeds and with whom to share and recognize each other’s virtues.” The soul with music in it wants another to hear, too, bringing out the greatness in that other one. Churchill’s understanding of this reminds von Heyking of Socrates’ portrait of the “daimonic man,” the one so wise in conversation that he seems to speak with the gods. Churchill’s own example of this kind of person is Moses, the man who saw the divine in the Burning Bush, which ever after burned inside him, a “miracle of unswerving and seemingly inexhaustible determination in pursuing great purposes, and the capacities for friendship required to bring alone a people toward those purposes.” For the daimonic but ineloquent Moses, the indispensable friend was Aaron, who could share in a quest not for the useful or the pleasant but the good, a friend who could complete his work. Churchill himself saw the Duke of Marlborough as his daimonic ancestor who never wrote a book, with Churchill undertaking to complete the life-work of defending England against Continental tyrants both in words (his most brilliant book, The Life of Marlborough) and deeds (the wars against Nazism and Communism). The words and actions were governed by thoughts Mrs. Churchill noticed in her husband as he worked on the Life in the early 1930s. “The writing of Marlborough,” she recalled, “had produced a real effect on her husband’s character; he had discovered that Marlborough’s patience became the secret of his achievements,” and he henceforth cultivated that virtue in himself. He needed it, during those ‘Wilderness Years’ before the Second World War, when his warnings against Nazism brought scorn and political brush-offs from the British establishment.
In his own life, Churchill found friends in the publishing magnate Max Aitken (Lord Beaverbrook) and U. S. President Franklin Roosevelt. Beaverbrook was eminently useful, “persuading the Americans to increase their production targets” for military hardware. But more, “Churchill wanted Beaverbrook around simply because they were good friends,” like-minded in their “contempt for the purely transient issue” and their esteem for the fundamental one: resistance to tyranny in its unprecedentedly lethal modern forms. Alluding to a sentence Aristotle writes in the Ethics, von Heyking writes, “Though the gloried or magnanimous man can make his friendships stronger because they are so rare,” Cabinet colleagues in two wars, Churchill and Beaverbrook came to share their book manuscripts—perhaps the ultimate sign of trust and mutual esteem among writers.
Although superior to Roosevelt with respect to “the depth to which he reflected upon the nature of politics in general and on the totalitarian nature of Stalin’s regime in particular,” in von Heyking’s estimation Churchill still shared what Aristotle calls a “virtue-friendship” with the president. Here, it’s not quite clear that Roosevelt lived up to the offer, insisting on sharp terms in return for lend-leasing American ships, embarrassing Churchill in front of Stalin, and undercutting the British Empire at every opportunity. Von Heyking initially settles for a somewhat muted description (“Their friendship did not dissolve their differing national interests, but it did enable them at least to manage them and to enjoy a productive working relationship”) before regaining his enthusiasm sufficiently to describe the two men’s enjoyment of a sunset in the Atlas Mountains after the Casablanca Conference of 1943 as a sunaisthesis, an “act of joint intellectual perception” of “a vision of the good and the noble”—”the capstone of friendship” for them both. This may be going a bit too far, but it is indeed a noble thought, one well worth thinking in the unexalted political atmosphere of our own day.
Social scientists will want to know how friendship might be ‘institutionalized.’ For Churchill, von Heyking writes, “the moral goods associated with liberal democracy suggest that personal and political friendship do indeed play a critical role in its constitution, because they are part of the essential art of politics.” Parliamentary democracy, “more so than other types of regime, requires moral practices like friendships… because its very working is predicated not only on laws and parliamentary procedures, but on the moral virtues of civility and of course friendship.” The moral atmosphere of English parliamentarism was precisely what enabled Churchill to form a coalition between his fellow Conservatives and the Labour Party in the wartime cabinet, something his predecessor in the prime ministership could not have done. In this he reached across the barrier of ‘class-warfare’ politics, having eschewed the aristocratic pretensions of Toryism and working toward what Aristotle would call a ‘mixed’ or ‘middling’ regime in which the ‘tale of two cities’ could become the story of one city, united against one of the vilest tyrannies.
Perhaps most profoundly, “the gift of friendship” strengthens and refines the prudence that should govern political life, beyond such pseudo-scientific superficialities as ‘class analysis’ and ‘rational choice theory.’ To befriend someone, to think and to feel with him, exercises the human capacity to think and to feel with anyone, including your enemies. Churchill saw how Marlborough could do this (as a result, on the battlefield “he was only wrong in his anticipations when the enemy made a mistake”), and learned to do it himself. There is an intelligence of empirical perception, observing and remembering details, but that only gets you to a better understanding of the surface of things. There is an intelligence of noetic perception, the philosopher’s strength, insight into the core of things. It is the intelligence of sympathy that gets you to the interior of the persons you meet. Only with that can you be said to have prepared yourself for acts of practical wisdom.
Readers will find this capacity for sympathetic intelligence as the foundation of prudence in the portraits Lehrman and von Heyking paint with such care and insight. Equipped with very different intellectual habits and manners of presentation, they nonetheless equally give their readers a glimpse of what it means to call a great statesman great.
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